The global clean energy transition relies on technologies like solar, wind, hydrogen, energy storage, and carbon capture, while technology and defense sectors require critical minerals for high-performance applications.

Supply-side risks, such as resource depletion, monopolisation, geopolitical tensions, and ESG challenges, threaten international supply chains, according to a GlobalData report.

Critical minerals are regionally concentrated, for example, lithium in South America, cobalt in Congo, and nickel in Indonesia.

The US and China are investing abroad to stabilise supply and support industrial growth.